Date: Tue, 2 May 95 18:00:00 -0400 Subject: Copt-Net Newsletter: Issue #12 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ___ ___ /___\ ___ IHC | | nXC ______| |______ /______| |______\ | _|_ | |______ | ______| | | | ______ ______ ______ | | __ _____ _______ /_____/\ /_____/\ /_____/\ | | /\_\___ /\____\ /\______\ \ ___\/ \ __ \ \ \ __ \ \ | | / / /___\ / / ___/ \/__ __/ _\ \ \_____\ \ \ \ \_\ \_\ \ \___| |____/ / ___ /_/ / /_\___ / / / / \ \ \____ \ \ \ \ \ \ ___\/ | | / / // / / / / ___/ / / /\ / \ \/___/\ \ \_\ \ \ \ \ \ | | / / // / / / / /_\ / / / \ / \_____\/ \_____\/ \_\/ | | \/_/ \/_/ \/____/ \/_/ \ / \ /____________________________________________________________________________\ \ / \ An electronic newsletter about the Coptic Orthodox Church / \ / \ "Blessed is Egypt My people" / \____________________________________________________________________/ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Table of Contents ----------------- 1. Clement of Alexandria: The Original Christian Philisopher 2. The Copts and Christian Civilization (Conclusion) 3. Excerpts from the Paradise of the Desert Fathers (Part 2) Readers' Corner --------------- 1. What is the significance of the assembly of saints in the Coptic liturgy? 2. How did Christ rise on the 3rd day if He was buried for less than 48 hours? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- _ _ ___ ___ _____ ___ ___ _ ___ ___ _____ \ / | \ | | ` | | | | ` / \ |\ | | | ` | | | \/ |__/ | | | | | | ' / \ | \ | |__ | | |___| /\ | | | | | | | / \ | \| | | | | | _/ \_ | | |___, | |___| |___, \___/\_ | | |___ |___, | | | | oo | | | __ | | _ | / \ | | / | | \__| ___ _ | | .'--' \________________/ /___)_____)_____)_)_)__/_]_| | | / | ( oo | \___, ___ ____ ___ _____ ___ ____ ___ ___ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |\ | | |___| |___| | |___ | | |___ |___| | |___ |___ | \ | | | | | \ | | | | | | \ | | | | \| |___ | | | \ | ___| | | ___| | \ | ___| |___ | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------|--------------------------------------- CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA: The Original Christian Philosopher by MARK MOUSSA OUT OF THE CATACOMBS AND "HOUSE"-CHURCHES of early Christendom rose a new brand of Christian Orthodoxy under the leadership of the Alexandrian fathers of the second and third century. It is these ancestors that defended the Christian faith against the disdain and hatred launched against them and their religion. Yet, while their pains to defend the legitimacy of Christianity is still remembered today, it is their innovative theology, their Christian philosophy in particular, that set so many precedents for later believers to behold and effectively use. In essence, it is these fathers - Clement, Origen, Athenagoras, and many others - that developed new ways to manifest Christianity as a philosophical religion in response to pagan humiliation. Why, though, did these theologians have to defend themselves at all? The answer is the fact that Christianity was never going to remain an enclosed sect of believers. At one point or another Christianity was going to diffuse and spread across imperial society. Thus, the religion had to be presented as the least bit legitimate in its doctrines and yet on par intellectually with the philosophical sciences of the age. Otherwise, Christianity would have been ridiculed and refuted as too mysterious and not liable to be understood by the human mind. In one way or another, Clement and his followers had to present Christianity as a form of philosophy without ever compromising the essence of the Christian faith. At the same time, these early defenders of the faith worked against a twofold danger. While they genuinely tried to resolve the pagan antagonisms they experienced so much of for simply being Christians, it was their own fellow believers who were also hostile for any sort of theological compromise. As Lilla observed, it seemed that a chance of any peace between the Greeks and Christians was virtually impossible: On the one hand, the completely negative attitude of many uneducated Christians towards Greek philosophy prevented Christianity from assuming a scientific and philosophical character, and thus limited greatly its chances of success; on the other hand, the pagan world did not refrain from attacking the new religion.[1] However, the Alexandrian fathers found a solution. It was contained in the mission of the Alexandrian school and its teachers to develop once and for all a coherent synthesis of Greek science and religion. The result was Christian philosophy, which, Clement realized, was the only hope of joining the pagan and Christian parties together under one rational and acceptable Christian religion. While those in the like of Tertullian renounced the remolding of Christian doctrine to fit philosophical ideals[2], the Alexandrian party became a pioneer in both its fresh theological endeavors and in its success to finally spread the Christian faith among the intellectual circles of imperial society. Clement of Alexandria, one of the most revered deans of the Catechetical School for his philosophical theology and intellectual acumen, was one of the foremost figures who succeeded in uniting the missions of religion and science. In setting the stage for the feats of such theologians as Gregory of Nyssa and Athanasius the Apostolic, Clement had to first understand the origins of Greek philosophy and then apply his learning to form a readily accepted "rapport" of sorts with Greek intellectualism.[3] Yet, before turning to Clement and his teaching, an essential historical and intellectual background of sorts is due first. By the middle of the second century the city of Alexandria was already one of the intellectual capitals of the Roman Empire. Philosophy was prominent in the capital, and yet Christianity was also rising despite the popular hatred against it. For this the Coptic Church had already instituted its known Catechetical School to train pagan converts. As Dawson points out, the school was an ecclesiastically sponsored institution devoted to preparing candidates for Christian baptism by teaching them the basic tenets of the Christian faith.[4] While its earliest known dean was the Sicilian Pantaenus, Clement and Origen became its most famous leaders. As will be shown, Clement's goals and motivations for his theology were clearly influenced by the school in which he taught and was most known. The school itself was built on a tradition that always emphasized allegory more than literalism. Its approach to scripture and its overall exegesis mirrored "otherworldly" concerns.[5] Its teachers as a result tended to look for the hidden and spiritual meanings of what they confronted. Alexandrian theology, just like Platonism, was idealistic, not materialistic. From this one can see how easy it was for the school's teachers to reformulate their ideas to effectively unite Christianity with Greek thought. Clement of Alexandria was no exception to his school's line of thought. Titus Flavius Clemens was born towards the middle of the century from pagan parents and grew up in Athens. Like most of the students of his time, he was trained in all the classical works. Yet, his attraction towards the Christian faith brought him to Alexandria, where his philosophical and religious ideals were both met. He was tutored by the above mentioned Pantaenus, and took over the leadership of the school towards the end of the second century. Clement's writing was not voluminous. His three chief works were Exhortation to Conversion (Protrepticus), the Tutor (Paedagogus), and the Miscellanies (Stromateis). While he also had other treatises written specifically to guide rich converts in living by true Christian ethics, he strove, more than anything else, to unite the Christian faith and science. Clement realized that before he could start on his philosophical theology he had to prove that Christian philosophy was itself a justified solution for the enmity between the pagan and Christian communities. First, he had to convince Greek philosophers that their doctrines were actually very similar to Christian doctrines. Both share doctrines that are fundamental to their respective religions. Secondly, he had to present to his Christians a coherent enough argument that philosophy is not inherently evil. Instead, philosophy agrees for the most part with every Christian notion of both this world and eternity. While during Clement's time Christianity was still predominant only among slaves and uneducated women, he showed that his faith was not just for the ignorant. Christianity, depending on both faith and reason, crossed all intellectual boundaries, from the ignorant to the most educated, in imperial society. When Clement finally proved that Christianity was the ultimate goal of philosophers, and that at the same time philosophy was a necessary but not a dangerous means to convert more pagans, he went ahead and showed that Christianity and philosophy were actually a perfect match. Their unity and compatibility was all too easily derived by the Alexandrian pioneer. As for Christians, Clement perceived that if Christianity was to be more than a religion for the uneducated it must come to terms with Greek philosophy and Greek science; simple-minded Christians must no longer "fear philosophy as children fear a scarecrow".[6] Clement encouraged Christians to study philosophy. He felt that doing so would provide protection to a faith that was always under much attack. "Rather than attempting to define and restrict the concept of the Christian dogma, Clement searched even among heretical literature for material he could utilize, and as Quasten puts it '... it is not exaggeration to praise him as the founder of speculative theology.'"[7] In his Stromateis he listed several hypotheses as to why his argument was right. The first, as Lilla explains, was that he believed in the divine origin of Greek philosophy.[8] Secondly, he tried to prove that Christianity, instead, was actually the "true philosophy". The Greeks had absorbed some elements of truth, but their knowledge was mostly constrained in comparison to the light that Christians have been presented with. Greek thought, Clement claimed, was actually "stolen" from the Old Testament. He concluded that Greek philosophy was inferior to the perfection of the Christian faith. Even then, it was still very useful for the Christians, who could find it to be an excellent preparation to study Christian doctrines.[9] Clement also focused on how to convince his Greek foes. While Greek philosophy was clearly seen as "at least essentially and consistently rational, in the efforts of its earliest representatives to frame a rational interpretation of the cosmos and in connection with every problem to which their successors addressed themselves"[10], Clement considered it critical to go further in regarding the philosophy of his day. For him, philosophy was a true preparation for the gospel. Until the incarnation, he says, philosophy was essential to the Greeks for righteousness, but even after the incarnation it may still prove useful in leading them to Christ.[11] What the Law of Moses provided for the life of a Jew, philosophy enlightened the mind and heart of a learned Greek. Moreover, because the practice of philosophy was bestowed upon the best and most virtuous among the Greeks, the source of such learning was granted by the providence of God.[12] The Creator himself brought this righteousness upon both Gentiles and supposed barbarians, having a universal calling for one united faith. Philosophy was not unique it its own right but rather wholly depended on Christianity for its own ideology. THUS, IT IS CLEAR THAT CLEMENT WANTED TO USE A NEW BRAND OF PHILOSOPHY to attract Gentiles to the faith, and yet prove that Christianity is actually a "higher" philosophy, and therefore quite rational in itself. It is here then, that Clement comes forward with his presentation of "Christian" philosophy. He had a three-step approach for formulating his ideas. The first and most obvious was his effort to prove that philosophy had its origins not in the minds of Aristotle, Plato, or Pythagoras, but rather in the writings of the Old Testament itself. After proving his case, he goes on to show that philosophical and Christian perspectives of human reason, mind and soul are particularly similar, deriving from the same supreme God. At the same time, it is this supreme Creator and divine Being that is present in and out of this world, with His Logos appearing in flesh and providing the fulfillment of all promises for both pagans and Jews. Both philosophers and Christians alike had premonitions of a supernatural existence, but only the latter had a clear perspective of Him, due to the supremacy of their faith. As Charles Bigg explains, the Gospel in his view is not a fresh departure, but actually the meeting point of two converging lines of progress, of Hellenism and Judaism. To him all history is one, because all truth is one.[13] Philosophy and Christianity, then, are the product of "one river of truth".[14] Clement claimed that there existed an identity, arising from their common origin in God, between the law of nature and the law of instruction.[15] Eager to show the agreement between Greek philosophical doctrines and the teaching of Scripture, he adds that the followers of Pythagoras and of Plato had also held the view that reason was something which had been given by God to man.[16] Timothy relates that Greek science itself had one dominant source. "There is an element of truth which each of them contains, a fragment torn from, but still a part of, eternal truth, for many of the dogmas of the sects, although pitched on different keynotes, compose one harmony, and he who reassembles the separate fragments and restores their unity 'will without peril ... contemplate the perfect Logos, who is truth'".[17] As was a common characteristic of the teachers at the Catechetical School of Alexandria, Clement had looked up to the great master-minds of the Hellenic schools with a generous admiration, and infused the same spirit into his teachings and theology.[18] It is within the philosophical spectrum that he attempted to define the Christian man and the Christian God. While he would use Plato's system of this and the supernatural world to explain less understandable Christian mysteries to pagan proselytes, he took every opportunity to fuse the system of Stoic virtue to the mannerisms and behavior of a true Christian. Philosophy for Clement, and specifically the Stoic ideals of virtue, were not static but actually dynamic qualities for pagan converts to utilize in their Christian endeavors as new humans[19] in a new faith.[20] Yet, even though the Church and its school used philosophical ideals to explain one's conduct to a pagan proselyte, it still possessed purer morals and a more reasonable creed than pagan philosophy as evidence of its superior quality of life.[21] Even if a negative attitude could be accepted against certain negative aspects of philosophy, like Stoic pantheism or the subordinate view of the Logos, the merits of philosophy were strenuously asserted by Clement not only for its past but its continuous necessity for church members.[22] While Stoicism clearly had a defined materialistic view of the universe, denying any separate world of "spirit" and maintained that the universe only contained matter, Stoicism was still used with Christianity in two main areas. Clement used this side of philosophy to show that all human beings are rational and have within them the "spark of reason" or the "divine spark".[23] Secondly, Stoicism was used to show to pagan converts that Christian morals were actually quite similar to the ethics they had somewhat embraced in their Stoic beliefs. Clement here developed a doctrine quite unique to himself. He believed in a "seminal" Christ. Clement supposed that God had installed a notion in every human of an eternal God who had the essential role in creation of the world and humanity itself. Clement also supposed that humanity as a whole understood Christ and the eternal existence of another world in some form or another. It is obvious that Christians have the fullest understanding of Him, but philosophers alike received a clue to at least who the ultimate focus of worship really was. Clement gives examples of some of those that were given that "spark" of divine knowledge. Pythagoras, his disciples, and Plato are inspired "prophets" who had attained a partial knowledge of the truth.[24] "Plato in fact reaches a position not very far from that of the Psalmist who says 'The knowledge of God is the beginning of wisdom' - though he reaches this position by a very different road. Although Plato does not formally identify the Good with God, he speaks of its divine nature in such a way that formal identification would make little difference."[25] Moses, David and Plato were all "Christians before Christ". Secondly, Platonism held that every human being is comprised of soul and body. However, since the soul is a spiritual, not a material, entity, its true home is not in the material world and thus is imprisoned, in some sense, until it attains its freedom. One of the most famous sayings of the Platonists was "the body is a tomb" (ho soma sema)[26], which indicates the philosophy's distinct differentiation and separation of the spiritual and earthly realms. Against this, though, Clement had his objections and agreements. Clement clarified his Christian beliefs against Greek speculation by stating that their was an eternal unity between soul and body once a human being is created. While indeed flesh and spirit continuously fight each other[27], one will rise again with both soul and a transformed body of a different and glorious nature. Thus, as is clear about Clement, the body has a definite use and value. Clement, then, used Platonic thought in this case to reach pagan converts, but at the same time purified their beliefs to a more Christian standard. The end result is a Christianized philosophy, whether in Stoic or Platonic terms. Besides a human being's innate divine qualities, he must be admired also for his reasoning capabilities, even if it was not initially used for belief in Christ. "Philosophy for one and all is a gift, not of devils, but of God through the Logos, whose light ever beams upon his earthly image, the intelligence of man."[28] The Alexandrian theologian even used scripture to prove his theory. Biblical passages (Gen. 1:26, 27) showed that God bestowed upon man a rational principle which was an imitation of his own image, the Logos.[29] Thus, it does not matter whether one was a philosopher or a Jew. All had the same gift to realize the power, wisdom, and teachings of God by which they should live their lives. For Clement, there is a close kinship between the human mind and the universal Logos, the Son of God.[30] No matter how distorted their beliefs were, there was a divine element dwelling in them which allowed them to attain even the faintest reflection of the eternal truth. CLEMENT ALSO SHOWED SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLATONIC THOUGHT AND THE CHRISTIAN GOD. Platonists had no doubt of the existence of a spiritual realm, and their main concern was trying to relate it to the impure and lustful world that humanity exists in. Their answer was that there exists a Source of All Things, named "The One", who has been existing eternally from the beginning and is the potential for all things. Secondly, Platonic thought assumed that creation was not possible without The Divine Mind, who is actually the thought process by which The One can possibly cause creation at any level. However, for the full mode of creation to occur The World-Soul has to join the above two entities and thus all concrete particular ideals of the world can come to fruition through their united action. It is obvious, first of all, that the Platonic view of the world had some correct intuition. As with the Christian Trinity, there exists a triune entity in the Platonic spiritual world. At the same time, creation for either party is impossible without the participation of all members of that entity. There is ample evidence in the creation story of the Trinitarian involvement of the seven days of creation.[31] Yet, neither Jesus Christ the Logos of God[32], who corresponded to The Divine Mind of Platonic thought, nor the Holy Spirit, the equivalent of The World-Soul, are subordinate to the Father. As opposed to Platonism in this note, all three hypostases in the Trinity are equal, unlike the pagan argument. Hence, the Christian religion is still superior theologically despite a quite coherent argument from the Greeks. Indeed, Clement actually proved that what was taught in the classical schools abroad was actually the same teachings that Christianity held so dear. One had to incorporate all that is believed in by Greek society, and finally produce a faith that is both appealing to the learned in philosophy yet profound to the believers. Clement, arguably, never failed to accomplish his goals of uniting the opposite ends of faith and science. All the more surprising, his Orthodoxy remained intact for later generations to take example from and marvel at. In doing so, he was apparently a professional teacher of the kind who in all parts dispensed the ideas of both philosophy and rhetoric.[33] He set both the example and the method by which the School would present Christianity to prospective proselytes and how a Christian was to approach and benefit from secular learning. In order for one to attempt to understand Clement's motives, one has to grasp both the role and the popularity of the Catechetical School during his time. The school itself was motivated to teach of the allegorical side of Christianity. It was famous for its role in developing catechisms of scripture far from a literal approach. Though Origen might have admittedly went too far, Clement's allegory itself related quite strongly to the highly idealistic philosophy he fought. There are a few implications that lie behind our interpretations and portrayals of Clement of Alexandria. The first and most obvious is the fact that Clement was quite successful in his endeavors. While this work does not do him any justice whatsoever, he was the first and probably most adventurous, next to Athanasius, in presenting Christianity in pagan terms, as explained above, to pagan proselytes. The sudden rise of pagan conversion during his time are quite a testimony to his success. Secondly, he philosophized Christianity in order to develop a Christian system of rational and quite understandable doctrines. He was able to speak of the mysterious Trinity in an Orthodox standard and yet reach out to Greek intellect. Thirdly, Clement proved that Christianity is not really an ignorant religion. He showed that both philosophers and Christians believed in the same doctrines, and that the faith was actually for one and all, regardless of their education. If Plato and Moses believed in the same God, then neither can really be called unlearned. On the contrary, both were geniuses in their own right. In setting a precedent for later generations, he showed that all the negative nuances of one's environment can actually be used and incorporated into theory and practice. A pure faith can indeed afford the sciences and new discoveries of everyday life. For that particular reason, more than any other, Clement of Alexandria fused Greek philosophy and the "true" religion, Christianity, to produce what we now know as Christian philosophy. While he pointed out the faults in Greek learning, he still used it without ever compromising the righteousness of his faith. As none can object, Clement was justified in Lilla's view: Since the universal truth represented by the Logos is scattered in the different systems of Greek philosophy, it naturally follows, in Clement's opinion, that he who wants to know the whole truth must gather together the best doctrines of the different systems; in this way he can build up a kind of absolute philosophy which is also identical with the truth.[34] Footnotes --------- [ 1] S. Lilla, Clement of Alexandria (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 34. [ 2] "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" (Prescription Against Heretics 7) is a much quoted saying of his that exemplifies his hostile attitude towards Greek thought in general. The quotation could be found in E. Daily, etc., Tertullian: Apologetical Works. FOTC. (Washington: CUA Press, 1950). [ 3] H. B. Timothy, The Early Christian Apologists and Greek Philosophy (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1973), 13. [ 4] D. Dawson, Allegorical Readers and Cultural Revision in Ancient Alexandria (Oxford: University of California Press, 1992), 219. [ 5] D. Bell, A Cloud of Witnesses (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian, 1989), 44. [ 6] E. R. Dodds, Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965), 106; cf. Strom. 1.6.80. [ 7] C. W. Griggs, Early Egyptian Christianity (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991), 60. J. Quasten's quote is from his Patrology, vol. II (Westminster, Maryland: Christian Classics, 1986), 20. [ 8] Lilla, p. 10; cf. Strom. 1.20.1-2. [ 9] Lilla, p. 11; cf. Strom. 1.28.3, 1.80.5,6, and 1.28.4 for example. [10] Timothy, 10. [11] Bell, 46. [12] Timothy, p. 60. [13] C. Bigg, The Christian Platonists of Alexandria (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968 [repr. from 1913]), 76. [14] Strom. 1.5.29. [15] Timothy, p. 59. [16] C. Roth's introductory notes in her translation of Gregory of Nyssa, On the Soul and the Resurrection (Crestwood, New York: Saint Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1993), 14. [17] Strom. 1.8.57 quoted in Timothy, pp. 60-61. [18] Bigg., p. 70. [19] Eph. 4:24. [20] Bigg, p. 71. [21] Ibid., p. 72. [22] Ibid., p. 79. [23] Bell, p. 22. [24] Lilla, p. 17. [25] H. D. F. Kitto, The Greeks (Edinburgh, 1951), pp. 193-194, quoted from Timothy, p. 23. [26] Bell, pp. 23-26. [27] Gal. 5:17. [28] Bigg., p. 77. [29] Lilla, p. 15. [30] Ibid., p. 15. [31] Genesis 1 containing God speaking in the first person plural, only the beginning of Orthodox evidence that the creation was an act of the Trinity, not the Father alone. [32] John 1:1. [33] Stuart Hall, Doctrine and Practice in the Early Church (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1992) 95. [34] Lilla, p. 54. BIBLIOGRAPHY ------------ PRIMARY SOURCES: --------------- (All three of the following have both patristic translations and introductory biographies of each respective author. None of them, however, give complete presentations of Clement's three chief works.) Bettenson, H. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN FATHERS (London: Oxford University Press, 1991 [eleventh ed.]). St. Gregory of Nyssa, trans. by C. Roth. ON THE SOUL AND THE RESURRECTION Crestwood, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1993. Jurgens, W. A. THE FAITH OF THE EARLY FATHERS (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1970). MacMullen, R. and E. Lane, eds. PAGANISM AND CHRISTIANITY; A SOURCEBOOK (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992). SECONDARY SOURCES: ----------------- Bell, D. N. A CLOUD OF WITNESSES Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1989. Bigg, C. THE CHRISTIAN PLATONISTS OF ALEXANDRIA London: Oxford University Press, 1968, [repr.]. Blair, H. A. THE KALEIDOSCOPE OF TRUTH Worthing: Churchman Publishing, 1986. Chadwick, H. EARLY CHRISTIAN THOUGHT AND THE CLASSICAL TRADITION New York: Oxford University Press, 1966. ______. THE EARLY CHURCH New York: Penguin Books, 1967. Dawson, D. ALLEGORICAL READERS AND CULTURAL REVISION IN ANCIENT ALEXANDRIA Oxford: University of California Press, 1992. Dodds, E. R. PAGAN AND CHRISTIANITY IN AN AGE OF ANXIETY Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965. Ferguson, J. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA New York: Twayne Publishers, 1974. Griggs, C. W. EARLY EGYPTIAN CHRISTIANITY Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991. Gruner, R. "Science, Nature, and Christianity" JOURNAL OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES 26 London, April 1975. Lilla, S. R. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA London: Oxford University Press, 1971. Osborn, E. THE BEGINNING OF CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Timothy, H. B. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN APOLOGISTS AND GREEK PHILOSOPHY Assen: Van Gorcum, 1972. Wagner, W. AFTER THE APOSTLES Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1994. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------|--------------------------------------- The Copts and Christian Civilization Aziz S. Atiya Conclusion ---------- Like a great and solitary Egyptian temple standing sorrowfully on the edge of the desert and weathering sandstorms over the years until it became submerged by the accretions of time, the ancient Coptic Church led its lonely life unnoticed on the fringe of Christian civilization and was buried in the sands of time and oblivion. Like the same massive temple, too, it has proved itself to be indestructible though battered by the winds of change. As an organism, its potential vitality, though enfeebled by sustained fighting, has survived in a latent form under the weight of accumulated rubble. In the last few decades, with increasing security and liberty from within and support and sympathy from without, its sons and daughters have started removing the sands of time from around the edifice, which has shown signs of shining again [51]. The miracle of the survival of the Copts in a surging sea of Islam, coming after the black days of Byzantine misrule since Chalcedon in 451 can be explained only by the depth of spirituality which the genius of their forebears was able to build during the formative ages of Alexandrine Christianity. The religious contributions of the early fathers of the Coptic Church have remained unnoticed and sometimes have been ascribed to the Greeks, until the relatively recent rediscovery of the Copts and their heritage. During the first four or five centuries of our era, Egypt produced some of the most illustrious names in Christian annals. Men such as Origen, Athanasius, Cyril the Great, St. Anthony, St. Pachomius, Shenute the Great, and many more have left their mark on the history of Christian civilization both within and outside Egypt. Whereas the Catechetical School of Alexandria was the only center of Christian scholarship in the second and third centuries, the Oecumenical Movement was inaugurated in the fourth and fifth to formalize decisions on burning questions of Christology. In both fields, the role of the Copts was supreme, and their enduring contributions became an integral part of Christian civilization for all time. Perhaps even more staggering as a Coptic contribution was the monastic rule in its perfected form. Irrespective of later views on monastic life, the fact remains that monastic orders have been instrumental in the preservation of culture and civilization through the darkest ages of European history. Furthermore, the Coptic monks of those early centuries were responsible for an active missionary movement and the evangelization of many parts of the Old World. In the south, the kingdoms of Nubia and Abyssinia were converted to Christianity by these missionaries, and in the north, missions from Thebes and from Mareotis followed in the steps of the Roman legions to Switzerland, Gaul, and even Britain long before the advent of St. Patrick and St. Augustine of Canterbury. The impact of Coptic Christianity may also have penetrated other fields which are still open to other enquiry. The interaction between Coptic vocal chanting and the immortal Gregorian chants, the basilical style in Coptic ecclesiastical architecture and the standard cathedrals of the West, and the minor arts of the Copts are all subjects which attract increasing attention by specialists with a promise of revealing hidden influences on our civilization. In fact, the conglomerate impact of these and more items has awakened the searching minds of students of divinity and culture in many countries of the West to explore this forgotten corner of a most ancient Christianity for greater light. The foundation of institutes of Coptic studies independently and within the framework of noted universities came as a natural response to this growing pursuit of knowledge. Coptology was established as perhaps the newest branch of the humanities, parallel to the other disciplines of Egyptology, papyrology, and Islamology. Then in 1976, the Coptologists of the world convened in Cairo by the Egyptian Department of Antiquities, and there they created the International Association of Coptic Studies for the coordination of the expanding activities in the exploration of the Coptic heritage. It was also on that occasion that the project of the Coptic Encyclopaedia was hailed as a much needed and long overdue research tool in an unusual field and as a means of diffusing knowledge concerning one of the most glorious chapters in the story of Christian civilization. About the author: Aziz S. Atiya ------------------------------- Aziz S. Atiya was born in an Egyptian village shortly before the turn of the twentieth century. His education began in Egypt and was continued in England, where he secured a Ph.D. in 1933 from the University of London and D.Litt. from the University of Liverpool in 1938. He was awarded the Charles Beard Fellowship as well as the Ramsay Muir Fellowship in 1931 and the University Fellowship in 1932 from the University of Liverpool for outstanding scholarship in Mediaeval History. In America he was granted three more doctorates in an honorary capacity: an LL.D. from Brigham Young University in 1968 and two doctorates of Humane Letters, from Baldwin-Wallace College in 1962, and from the University of Utah in 1968. Professor Atiya's teaching career began with a Tutorship in the University of London School of Oriental Studies in 1934, followed by a Professorship of Midiaeval (including Oriental) History in the University of Bonn in Germany from 1936 to 1939. He returned to Egypt after the outbreak of World War II, became the First History Inspector for Egyptian Secondary Education from 1939 to 1940, then Professor of Midiaeval History in Cairo University from 1940 and in Alexandria University from 1945 to 1954. He was elected first Fulbright scholar from Egypt in 1951 and as such acted as Consultant to the Library of Congress as well as lecturing at many American universities. Professor Atiya was later invited back to the United States as Visiting Professor at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor) for the year 1955-56. The following academic year he occupied another Visiting Professorship of History at Columbia University together with the Henry W. Luce Professorship of World Christianity at Union Theological Seminary. Simultaneously, he was elected Patten Lecturer of the year at Indiana University. He accepted a similar appointment in the following year (1957-58) at Princeton University and became a Fellow of the Institute for Advanced Study in 1958-59. At the end of his term at the Institute, the University of Utah offered him a tenured position as Professor of Languages and History. He founded its Middle East Center and its significant Middle East Library, and in 1967 he was named Distinguished Professor of History. Immediately before coming to the United States, Professor Atiya established the Institute of Coptic Studies and became its first President in 1954. He also was elected Corresponding Member of the Society of Coptic Archaeology as well as UNESCO International Committee for the Cultural History of Mankind. Among a number of similar memberships of learned academies and societies, he was elected one of four Orientalists in the world to be Honored Fellow of the Middle East Association of North America. Long recognized as a leading authority in the fields of Midiaeval Studies and the Near East with a concentration of the Crusades and East-West relations, Professor Atiya has published widely, many of his books appearing in translation and in several editions. Among his most influential works are the "Crusades in the Later Middle Ages" (1938), "A History of the Egyptian Patriarchs" (1948-59), "Crusade, Commerce, and Culture" (1962), and "A History of Eastern Christianity" (1968). His academic achievements were crowned in 1991, two years after his death, with the publishing of the "Coptic Encyclopedia", a monumental piece of work that engaged Professor Atiya for the last twenty years of his life. Selected Bibliography --------------------- This bibliography includes a brief selection of general books in English. For further and fuller reference to the sources and to special Coptic studies, see W.Kammerer "A Coptic Bibliography" (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1950, reprinted 1969), and also footnotes and bibliography of the "History of Eastern Christianity" (London, 1967, reprinted Notre Dame, Indiana, 1968). - Attwater, D. "The Christian Churches of the East", 2 vols. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1948. - Burmester, O. H. E. "The Egyptian or Coptic Church", Cairo, 1967. - Butcher, E. L. "The Story of the Church of Egypt", 2 vols. London, 1897. - Butler, A. J. "The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt", 2 vols. Oxford 1884. - Duchesne, L. "Early History of the Christian Church, from its Foundation to the Fourth Century", English translation by Claude Jenkins, 3 vols. London 1950-51. - Fortescue, A. "The Lesser Eastern Churches". London, 1913. - Fowler, M. "Christian Egypt: Past, Present and Future". London, 1901. - Groves, C. P. "The Planting of Christianity in Africa", 4 vols. London, 1948-58. - Hardy, E. R. "Christian Egypt, Church and People". New York, 1952. - Iris Habib El-Masry "The Story of the Copts". Cairo, 1978. - Kidd, B. J. "The Churches of Eastern Christendom, from A.D. 451 tp Present Time". London, 1927. - Latourete, K. S. "History of the Expansion of Christianity", 7 vols. New York, 1937-45. - MacKean, W. H. "Christian Monasticism in Egypt to the Close of the Fourth Century". London, 1920. - Meinardus, Otto. "Christian Egypt, Ancient and Modern". Cairo, 1965. - Neale, J. M. "A History of the Holy Eastern Church: Patriarchate of Alexandria", 2 vols. London 1897. - Waddell, H. "The Desert Fathers". London, 1936. - Wakin, E. "A Lonely Minority, The Modern History of Egypt Copts: The Challenge of Survival for Four Million Christians". New York, 1969. - Westerman, W. L., et al. "Coptic Egypt". New York, 1944. - Worrell, W. H. "A Short Account of the Copts". Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1949. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------|--------------------------------------- THE PARADISE OF THE DESERT FATHERS (Part 2) Foreword: -------- The following are excerpts from what is widely known in the Coptic Church as "bustan al-rohbaan" (The Monks' Garden), also referred to in English as the "Paradise of the Desert Fathers". Bustan al-rohbaan is not a single book, rather it is a collection of sayings and accounts written by and about the Desert Fathers of Egypt. The excerpts presented here are adopted from an abbreviated book edited by Dr. Benedicta Ward. --Copt-Net Editorial Board LIFE TOGETHER ------------- Sayings: ------- Amma Syncletica said, "We ought to govern our souls with discretion and to remain in the community, neither following our own will nor seeking our own good. We are like exiles: we have been separated from the things of this world and have given ourselves in one faith to the one Father. We need nothing of what we have left behind. There we had reputation and plenty to eat; here we have little to eat and little of everything else." Abba Antony said, "Our life and our death are with our neighbour. If we gain our brother, we have gained our God; but if we scandalize our brother, we have sinned against Christ." A brother asked, "I have found a place where my peace is not disturbed by the brethren; do you advise me to live there?" Abba Poemen replied, "The place for you is where you will not harm the brothers." Stories: ------- There was an anchorite who was gazing with the antelopes and who prayed to God, saying, "Lord, teach me something more." And a voice came to him, saying, "Go into this monastery and do whatever they tell you." He went there and remained in the monastery, but he did not know the work of the brothers. The young monks began to teach him how to work and they would say to him, "Do this, you idiot," and "Do that, you fool." When he had borne it, he prayed to God, saying, "Lord, I do not know the work of men; send me back to the antelopes." And having been freed by God, he went back into the country to graze with the antelopes. A beginner who goes from one monastery to another is like a wild animal who jumps this way and that for fear of the halter. SILENCE ------- Sayings: ------- Having withdrawn from the palace to the solitary life, abba Arsenius prayed and heard a voice saying to him, "Arsenius, flee, be silent, pray always, for these are the source of sinlessness." A brother in scetis went to ask for a word from abba Moses and the old man said to him, "Go and sit in your cell and your cell will teach you everything." Abba Nilus said, "The arrows of the enemy cannot touch one who loves quietness; but he who moves about in a crowd will often be wounded." Stories: ------- Theophilus of holy memory, bishop of Alexandria, journeyed to Scetis and the brethren coming together said to abba Pambo, "Say a word or two to the bishop, that his soul may be edified in this place." The old man replied, "If he is not edified by my silence, there is no hope that he will be edified by my words." This place was called Cellia, because of the number of cells there, scattered about the desert. Those who have already begun their training there [i.e. in Nitria] and want to live a more remote life, stripped of external things, withdraw there. For this is the utter desert and the cells are divided from one another by so great a distance that no one can see his neighbour nor can any voice be heard. They live alone in their cells and there is a huge silence and a great quiet there. Only on Saturday and Sunday do they meet in church, and then they see each other face to face, as men restored to heaven. THE KINGDOM WITHIN ------------------ Sayings: ------- It was revealed to abba Antony in his desert that there was one in the city who was his equal. He was a doctor by profession, and whatever he had beyond his needs he gave to the poor and every day he sang the sanctus with the angles. Amma Matrona said, "There are many in the mountains who behave as if they were in the town, and they are wasting their time. It is better to have many people around you and to live the solitary life in your will than to be alone and always longing to be with a crowd." Abba Isidore said, "If you fast regularly, do not be inflated with pride; if you think highly of yourself because of it, then you had better eat meat. It is better for a man to eat meat than to be inflated with pride and glorify himself." Story: ----- When blessed Antony was praying in his cell, a voice spoke to him, saying, "Antony, you have not yet come to the measure of the the tanner who is in Alexandria." When he heard this, the old man arose and took his stick and hurried into the city. When he had found the tanner, he said to him, "Tell me about your work, for today I have left the desert and come here to see you." He replied, "I am not aware that I have done anything good. When I get up in the morning, before I sit down to work, I say that the whole of this city, small and great, will go into the Kingdom of God because of their good deeds, while I alone will go into eternal punishment because of my evil deeds. Every evening I repeat the same words and believe them in my heart." When blessed Antony heard this he said, "My son, you sit in your own house and work well, and you have the peace of the Kingdom of God; but i spend all my time in solitude with no distractions, and i have not come near the measure of such words." HOSPITALITY ----------- Sayings: ------- Once three brothers came to visit an old man in Scetis and one of them said to him, "Abba, I have committed to memory the Old and New Testaments." And the old man answered, "You have filled the air with words." The second one said to him, "I have written out the Old and New Testaments with my own hands." He said, "And you have filled the window-ledge with manuscripts." Then the third said, "The grass is growing up my chimney." And the old man replied, "You have driven away hospitality." Once two brothers came to a certain old man. It was his custom not to eat every day but when he saw them he received them joyfully and said, "A fast has its own reward, but he who eats for the sake of love fulfills two commandments: he leaves his own will and he refreshes his brothers." Stories: ------- A brother came to see a certain hermit and, as he was leaving, he said, "Forgive me abba for preventing you from keeping your rule." The hermit replied, "My rule is to welcome you with hospitality and to send you away in peace." It was said of an old man that he dwelt in Syria on the way to the desert. This was his work: whenever a monk came from the desert, he gave him refreshment with all his heart. Now one day a hermit came and he offered him refreshment. The other did not want to accept it, saying he was fasting. Filled with sorrow, the old man said to him, "Do not despise your servant, I beg you, do not despise me, but let us pray together. Look at the tree which is here; we will follow the way of whichever of us causes it to bend when he kneels on the ground and prays." So the hermit knelt down to pray and nothing happened. Then the hospitable one knelt down and at once the tree bent towards him. Taught by this, they gave thanks to God. GENTLENESS ---------- Sayings: ------- Abba Nilus said, "Prayer is the seed of gentleness and the absence of anger." We came from Palestine to Egypt and went to see one of the fathers. He offered us hospitality and we said, "Why do you not keep the fast when visitors come to see you? In Palestine they keep it." He replied, "Fasting is always with me but I cannot always have you here. It is useful and necessary to fast but we choose whether we will fast or not. What God commands is perfect love. I receive Christ in you and so I must do everything possible to serve you with love. When I have sent you on your way, then I can continue my rule of fasting. The sons of the bridegroom cannot fast while the bridegroom is with them; when he is taken away from them, then they will fast." Stories: ------- A hunter in the desert saw abba antony enjoying himself with the brothers, and he was shocked. Wanting to show him that it was necessary sometimes to meet the needs of the brothers, the old man said to him, "Put an arrow in your bow and shoot it." So he did. And the old man said, "Shoot another," and he did so. Then the old man said, "Shoot yet again," and the hunter replied, "If I bend my bow so much, I will break it." Then the old man said to him, "It is the same with the work of God. If we stretch the brothers beyond measure, they will soon break. Sometimes it is necessary to come down to meet their needs." Some monks came to see abba Poemen and said to him, "When we see brothers dozing in the church, should we rouse them so that they can be watchful?" He said, "For my part, when I see a brother dozing, I put his head on my knees and let him rest." ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ _|_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------|--------------------------------------- Readers' Corner --------------- This corner of the Copt-Net Newsletter is dedicated to answering questions regarding the Christian faith and teachings in general and the Coptic Orthodox Church's beliefs and traditions in particular. As much as possible we will try to avoid using any terminology that will not be accessible to the common reader. Also, it must be noted that the opinions expressed here are those of members of Copt-Net Editorial board and do not (and should not be taken to be) the official opinions of the Coptic Orthodox Church. The Readers' Corner of this issue addresses two questions. The first question is regarding a section of the Coptic Liturgy about the "assembly of saints". The second is regarding the stated belief of Christians that Christ was risen on the third day and how could that be reconciled with the Gospels' account that He was buried for less than 48 hours. We thank the readers who sent these questions, and we invite all readers to send to us their comments or questions. Question -------- Why is the "assembly of the saints" a part of the Coptic liturgy? How were/are these saints chosen? What is the process for adding the name of a saint to the list of saints mentioned? and how old is this tradition? Answer ------ The "assembly of the saints" is an important part of the Coptic Liturgy since it follows the supplications and litanies that are concerned with the well-being of the church and its members (its leaders, its servants, its followers, their offerings, etc.) and it precedes the commemoration of those church members who has departed. The Coptic Orthodox Church believes that the Church has two united bodies, the Victorious Church (those who departed and are in the Paradise) and the Struggling Church (those who are still living on earth and struggling to live a Godly and righteous life). So by remembering members of the Victorious Church we affirm our unity with them and we remember them as examples for us to follow until we join them. Also we remember the saints before commemorating those who departed from the church recently (as well as the departed leaders of the church whose names are to be read in every mass) since we pray to God for those who departed to make them follow these saints to Paradise. The names of the saints in the "assembly of saints" that is read in the liturgy is far from an exhaustive list and it is just a representative list. In the Midnight Praise, for example, there is a much more extensive "assembly of saints" that is read on the eve of every service. Even this list is not complete because there are saints throughout the Church's history, and there are even saints whom we are not aware of. Most of the members of the "assembly of saints" that is read during the liturgy are saints who lived between the first and fifth century. Thus, the list remained almost the same for a long time, but that does not imply that there cannot be anymore additions. In fact most priests add some saints at the end that are of special importance (e.g. St. Abraam the Late Bishop of Fayyoum and Giza who departed in 1914). So basically any official saint can be mentioned in the "assembly of saints". The Church recognizes righteous people as saints, 50 years after they depart and following an extensive research on their lives and experiences. The Holy Synod of the church is the body responsible for these decisions. Question -------- In the creed, Christians say that Christ arose from death on the third day. Yet, reading the Gospels reveals that He was in the tomb for less than 2 days. Could you explain this? Answer ------ The confusion here is due to the way we view a day in our western culture and the way the Jewish people view it. According to the Jewish tradition, a day starts immediately after the sunset of the previous day. Jesus Christ was crucified on a Friday. He was dead and was buried before the sunset of that day and He arose from the dead immediately before the dawn of Sunday. Thus, according to the Jewish tradition, He arose on the third day. Here is an account of the events from the Gospels. Jesus was dead before Friday's sunset: "So when Jesus had received the sour wine, He said, `It is finished!' And bowing His head, He gave up His spirit. Therefore, because it was the Preparation Day, that the bodies should not remain on the cross on the Sabbath for that Sabbath was a high day, the Jews asked Pilate that their legs might be broken, and that they might be taken away. Then the soldiers came and broke the legs of the first and of the other who was crucified with Him. But when they came to Jesus and saw that He was already dead, they did not break His legs [John 19:30-33]. Thus Jesus Christ was in the tomb for part of Friday; that's the first day. Jesus was in the tomb all of Saturday, which is the Sabbath: "[After He was buried on Friday, the women who had come with Him from Galilee] returned and prepared spices and fragrant oils. And they rested on the Sabbath according to the commandment" [Luke 23:56]. Thus Jesus Christ was in the tomb for all of Saturday; that's the second day. Jesus was in the tomb for part of Sunday (from after Saturday's sunset until His resurrection before Sunday's dawn): "Now after the Sabbath, as the first day of the week began to dawn, Mary Magdalene and the other Mary came to see the tomb. And behold, there was a great earthquake; for an angel of the Lord descended from heaven, and came and rolled back the stone from the door, and sat on it. His countenance was like lightning, and his clothing as white as snow. And the guards shook for fear of him, and became like dead men. But the angel answered and said to the women, `Do not be afraid, for I know that you seek Jesus who was crucified. He is not here; for He is risen, as He said.'" [Matthew 28:1-6]. Thus Jesus Christ was in the tomb for part of Sunday; that's the third day. This is why Christians recite in the creed that "[Jesus Christ] arose from the dead on the third day, according to the Scriptures." Here the Scriptures refer to the New Testament as well as the Old Testament, for there have been countless prophesies about Jesus being in the tomb for 3 days. Jesus Himself referred to His rising from death on the third day: "The Son of Man will be delivered to the chief priests and to the scribes, and they will condemn Him to death and deliver Him to the Gentiles; and they will mock Him, and scourge Him, and spit on Him, and kill Him. And the third day He will rise again." [Mark 10:33]. Also, when the Jewish people asked for a sign. He referred them to the story of Jonah, who was counted among the dead for three days, yet he came back to life. And, in a similar dialogue with the Jewish people of His time, we read: "So the Jews answered and said to Him, `What sign do You show to us, since You do these things?' Jesus answered and said to them, `Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up.' Then the Jews said, `It has taken forty-six years to build this temple, and will You raise it up in three days?' But He was speaking of the temple of His body. Therefore, when He had risen from the dead, His disciples remembered that He had said this to them; and they believed the Scripture and the word which Jesus had said." [John 2:18-22]. They believed the Scriptures and became witnesses to the whole world as spoken by Peter: "And we are witnesses of all things which He did both in the land of the Jews and in Jerusalem, whom they killed by hanging on a tree. Him God raised up on the third day, and showed Him openly, not to all the people, but to witnesses chosen before by God, even to us who ate and drank with Him after He arose from the dead. "And He commanded us to preach to the people, and to testify that it is He who was ordained by God to be Judge of the living and the dead. To Him all the prophets witness that, through His name, whoever believes in Him will receive remission of sins." [Acts 10:39-43]. Amen. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ This and other issues of the Copt-Net Newsletter are available from Copt-Net Archives via anonymous FTP from "ftp://pharos.bu.edu/CN/" or through the WWW Coptic Home Page at URL: "http://cs-www.bu.edu/faculty/best/pub/cn/Home.html" ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ This Newsletter has been prepared by members of Copt-Net, a forum _|_ where news, activities, and services of the Coptic Orthodox Churches | and Coptic communities outside Egypt are coordinated and exchanged. | For any questions, or comments related to this Newsletter, as well as COP|NET any topics that you would like to be addressed in the next Newsletter please send a message to the Copt-Net server at: cn-request@cs.bu.edu ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (C)opyright 1995 by Copt-Net